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Use of Diammonium Phosphate to Reduce Heavy Metal Solubility and Transport
in Smelter-Contaminated Soil
S. L. McGowen, N. T. Basta,* and G. O. Brown
ABSTRACT
reduce the solubility of metals through metal sorption
and/or precipitation. Decreased metal solubility and
Phosphate treatments can reduce metal dissolution and transport
mobility will reduce heavy metal transport from contam-
from contaminated soils. However, diammonium phosphate (DAP)
has not been extensively tested as a chemical immobilization treat-
inated soils to surface and ground water. In situ chemical
immobilization is less expensive than excavation and
ment. This study was conducted to evaluate DAP as a chemical immo-
bilization treatment and to investigate potential solids controlling
landfilling and may provide a long-term remediation
metal solubility in DAP-amended soils. Soil contaminated with Cd,
solution through the formation of stable metal minerals
Pb, Zn, and As was collected from a former smelter site. The DAP
and/or precipitates (Vangronsveld and Cunningham,
treatments of 460, 920, and 2300 mg P kg
2
1
and an untreated check
1998).
were evaluated using solute transport experiments. Increasing DAP
Chemical immobilization research using phosphate
decreased total metal transported. Application of 2300 mg P kg
2
1
was
addition has included mineral apatite and synthetic hy-
the most effective for immobilizing Cd, Pb, and Zn eluted from the
droxyapatite materials. These materials have proven to
contaminated soil. Metal elution curves fitted with a transport model
be effective at reducing the solubility and bioavailability
showed that DAP treatment increased retardation (
R
) 2-fold for
Cd, 6-fold for Zn, and 3.5-fold for Pb. Distribution coefficients (
K
d
)
of
heavy
metals
through
the
formation
of
metal–
increased with P application from 4.0 to 9.0 L kg
2
1
for Cd, from 2.9
phosphate minerals (Chen et al., 1997; Ma et al., 1995;
to 10.8 L kg
2
1
for Pb, and from 2.5 to 17.1 L kg
2
1
for Zn. Increased
Ma and Rao, 1997). In addition to reducing metal solu-
K
d
values with additional DAP treatment indicated reduced parti-
bility, rock phosphate amendments are effective at re-
tioning of sorbed and/or precipitated metal released to mobile metal
ducing metal bioavailability associated with incidental
phases and a concomitant decrease in the concentration of mobile
ingestion of soil by humans (Lambert et al., 1994; Zhang
heavy metal species. Activity-ratio diagrams indicated that DAP de-
et al., 1998) and associated with plant phytotoxicity
creased solution Cd, Pb, and Zn by forming metal–phosphate precipi-
(Basta and Gradwohl, 1998; Chlopecka and Adriano,
tates with low solubility products. These results suggest that DAP
1996; Laperche et al., 1997). Although apatite treat-
may have potential for protecting water resources from heavy metal
ments are effective for reducing metal solubility and
contamination near smelting and mining sites.
bioavailability, research on metal mobility and transport
have shown that these treatments are mostly ineffective
for reducing the release and transport of Cd and Zn
E
XTRACTION and processing of metal ores has contam-
from contaminated soils (McGowen, 2000).
inated soil and water resources with heavy metals
Investigations of chemical immobilization treatments
throughout the world. Natural weathering processes act-
have mainly focused on reducing the bioavailability (i.e.,
ing on contaminated land and mining wastes have dis-
plants, gastrointestinal), solubility, or extractability (i.e.,
persed metal contaminants beyond historic boundaries
sequential extractions) of metals. However, information
to surrounding soils, streams, and ground water (Fuge
is needed on the effect of treatments for reducing the
et al., 1993; Paulson, 1997). The redistribution of metal
mobility and transport of Cd, Pb, and Zn. Previous work
contaminants through transport processes endangers
has modeled metal transport through uncontaminated
the quality of waters used for human consumption and
soil (Selim, 1992; Selim et al., 1990). However, tradi-
threatens the welfare of surrounding ecosystems.
tional methods of researching heavy metal transport,
Restoration of contaminated sites and the disposal of
described by Selim and Amacher (1996), are seldom
metal-contaminated soils and wastes are labor intensive
applied to investigate contaminated soils. Investigations
and expensive. Remediation technologies based on the
of metal mobility in contaminated soils have been ad-
excavation and landfilling of metal-contaminated soils
dressed by describing metal content with depth (Scocart
and wastes are highly effective at lowering risk to hu-
et al., 1983), modeling observed in situ metal transport
mans and the environment. However, these methods
in soil profiles (Cernik et al., 1994), observing distribu-
are costly due to the high price of disposal in hazardous
tions of metal in streams and ground water (Paulson,
waste landfills and the transport of waste and backfill
1997), or describing metal mobility in soils using sequen-
soil (Vangronsveld and Cunningham, 1998). In situ
tial extraction schemes (Li and Shuman, 1996).
chemical immobilization is a remediation technique that
Few
studies
have
modeled
metal
transport
from
involves addition of chemicals to contaminated soil to
treated contaminated soils. Jones et al. (1997) investi-
gated the transport of As in contaminated mine tailings
S.L. McGowen and N.T. Basta, Dep. of Plant and Soil Sciences; G.O.
following liming. Peryea and Kammereck (1997) investi-
Brown, Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Oklahoma State
gated the release and movement of As with additions of
Univ., Stillwater, OK 74078. S.L. McGowen, current address: USDA-
ARS, Starkville, MS 39762. Published with approval of the Director,
Oklahoma Agric. Exp. Stn. Received 26 May 2000. *Corresponding
Abbreviations:
DAP, diammonium phosphate; PQL, practical quanti-
author (bastan@okstate.edu).
tative limits; TCLP, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure; XRF,
X-ray fluorescence.
Published in J. Environ. Qual. 30:493–500 (2001).
493
 494
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 30, MARCH–APRIL 2001
phosphate fertilizers to arsenate-contaminated orchard
Phosphate amendments were based on preliminary experi-
ments (McGowen, 2000) that included a 3:5 P to
M
total
molar
soils. Of the recent research on amended contaminated
ratio treatment (
M
total
5 o
of total Cd, Pb, and Zn determined
soils, investigators have not applied transport models
by XRF). The 3:5 ratio corresponds to the stoichiometric P
to evaluate heavy metal mobility and chemical immobi-
to Pb ratio of chloropyromorphite [Pb
5
(PO
4
)
3
Cl] and has been
lization treatments.
reported as the basis of hydroxyapatite and apatite treatments
Soluble phosphate sources could provide an abun-
to lead-contaminated soils (Laperche et al., 1996; Ma et al.,
dance of solution phosphorus and increase the efficiency
1993; Zhang and Ryan, 1999; Zhang et al., 1998). Preliminary
of metal–phosphate mineral formation (Berti and Cun-
studies, used to determine the amount of DAP required to
ningham, 1997; Cooper et al., 1998; Hettiarachchi et al.,
reduce soluble Cd, Pb, and Zn in the contaminated study soil
used in this study, showed that DAP treatments
1997; Ma et al., 1993). Metal–phosphate minerals were
,
3:5 P to
shown to control metal solubility in soil suspensions
M
total
were very effective. Also, phosphorus associated with
the 3:5 P to
M
total
treatment released significant arsenic (Mc-
when
soluble
phosphorus
was
added
(Santillian-
Gowen, 2000). Both of these observations are attributed to
Medrano and Jurinak, 1975) and induced the formation
the greater solubility of DAP compared with hydroxyapaptite.
of heavy metal phosphate precipitates (Cotter-Howells
Therefore, smaller P treatments of 460, 920, and 2300 mg P
and Capron, 1996). Investigation of soluble phosphate
kg
2
1
as DAP were selected for this study. These treatments
fertilizers, monoammonium phosphate (MAP) and di-
corresponded to approximate P to
M
total
ratios of 1:74, 1:37,
ammonium phosphate (DAP), showed that MAP de-
and 1:15, respectively. Phosphate amendments were mixed
creased and DAP increased the amount of Cd sorbed
thoroughly with the soil prior to uniform repacking into acrylic
by the soil (Levi-Minzi and Petruzzelli, 1984). However,
transport columns. Teflon filters (0.45
m) were placed be-
tween the soil matrix and end caps on each end of the column
m
Pierzynski and Schwab (1993) found that DAP in-
creased Cd and Zn bioavailability to soybean (
Glycine
to prevent loss of fines from the soil column. The column had
a 4-cm i.d. and was 7.5 cm long. Soils were saturated with
max
(L.) Merr.). Diammonium phosphate is a major
Type 1 reagent grade water (
.
18.0 M
V
·cmat25
8
C) (Ameri-
source of P fertilizer and currently represents approxi-
can Society for Testing and Materials, 1992) with continuous
mately 70% of the total US production of phosphate
upward flow using a piston pump (Fluid Metering, Syosset,
fertilizer products (U.S. Department of Commerce,
NY) until saturation and allowed to equilibrate for 48 h prior
1998). Commercially available in large quantities, DAP
to further leaching. After the equilibration period, a saturated
could prove to be an economical (currently US$250–275
flow regime was resumed and soil solution fractions were
per Mg) and effective metal immobilization treatment.
collected
with
a
fraction
collector
(ISCO,
Lincoln,
NE)
Additional research is needed to evaluate the reduction
through 60 pore volumes. Column effluent was passed through
Teflon tubing and an in-line 0.45-
m
m filter before collection
of heavy metal solubility, mobility, and transport in
DAP-amended contaminated soils.
into glass test tubes. Sample effluent pH and anion concentra-
tions (F, Cl, Br, NO
3
,PO
4
, and SO
4
) were immediately ana-
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effec-
lyzed after collection by combination electrode and ion chro-
tiveness of DAP as a chemical immobilization treatment
matography. Remaining effluent was acidified with trace metal
to reduce heavy metal solubility and transport in a
grade HNO
3
(pH
,
2) (American Public Health Association,
smelter-contaminated soil.
1992) for metal analysis (Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, K, Fe,
Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Zn) by inductively coupled plasma–atomic
MATERIALS AND METHODS
emission spectrometry (ICP–AES).
Chemical analyses were performed using calibration curves
Surface soil (
,
20 cm depth) with elevated residual concen-
determined from standards prepared from certified stock solu-
trations of Cd, Pb, Zn, and As was collected at an inoperative
tions. Sample blanks were analyzed to determine any matrix
smelter site in Oklahoma from an area that had recently been
effects, which allowed for correction of instrument response.
treated with coarse limestone. Soil was air-dried and sieved
Trace metal control standards were used to assess instrument
(
,
2 mm) prior to use. The soil exhibited effervescence with
precision and accuracy. Limits of detection (LOD) were calcu-
addition of 1
M
HCl indicating the presence of free carbonates.
lated as three standard deviations (3
s
) of the instrument re-
Soil pH (1:1, soil to water) was determined by combination
sponse for seven repeated analyses of a sample blank solution.
electrode. Particle size analysis was determined using the hy-
Practical quantitative limits (PQL) of detection were set at 10
drometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Total metal con-
times the LOD (American Public Health Association, 1992).
tent in the soil was determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
Solution concentrations below the PQL were assigned the
(Karathanasis and Hajek, 1996). The contaminated soil was
value of zero in data analysis.
also tested to determine its hazardous waste disposal status
Elution curves for As, Cd, Pb, P, and Zn were plotted
using a modified toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
for each column experiment. Metal eluted in solution was
(TCLP, SW-846 Method 1311) (USEPA, 1986). In this proce-
normalized to concentrations per 100 g of soil for comparison
dure, soil (5 g) was extracted with TCLP solution (0.1
M
of treatments. Numeric integration of metal mass eluted
sodium acetate, pH 5.0) in a 125-mL polyethylene bottle on
(through 60 pore volumes) per mass of soil was calculated.
a reciprocal shaker for 18 h.
Darcy flux (
q
), soil bulk density (
r
b
), and volumetric water
Furthermore, the soil was extracted with 0.5
M
Ca(NO
3
)
2
content were computed with the measured flow rate and col-
(1:20 soil to solution) for 16 h (Basta and Gradwohl, 2000) to
umn packing. Observed metal breakthrough curves were fitted
estimate potential metal bioavailability.
using the transport model COLUMN 1.4 (Brown et al., 1997),
Diammonium phosphate treatments were evaluated using
and retardation (
R
) was determined for each metal species.
solute transport experiments with repacked soil columns simi-
The retardation factor is defined as:
lar to methods described by Selim and Amacher (1996). Re-
agent grade diammonium phosphate, (NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
(23% P),
was added as an amendment to the contaminated soils based
r
b
K
d
u
R
5
1
1
[1]
on the total molarity of Cd, Pb, and Zn metal in the soil.
495
McGOWEN ET AL.: USE OF DIAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE IN CONTAMINATED SOIL
where
r
b
is the soil dry bulk density and
u
is the volumetric
Table 1. Total content, toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
(TCLP)-extractable, and 0.5
M
Ca(NO
3
)
2
–extractable Cd, Pb,
water content. The linear distribution coefficient,
K
d
, is defined
As, and Zn for the smelter-contaminated soil.
as:
0.5
M
Ca(NO
3
)
2
K
d
5
c
*/
c
[2]
Element
Total content†
TCLP extractable
extractable
where
c
* is the mass of solute adsorbed per dry mass of soils
mg kg
2
1
mg L
2
1
mg kg
2
1
reg. limit‡
and
c
is the aqueous volume concentration.
Cd
1 090
39.9
6
1.59
1.0
156
6
4.44
When effluent metal concentrations were below the PQL,
Pb
5 150
21.0
6
0.58
5.0
12.3
6
0.43
As
152
0.03
6
0.002
5.0
0.25
6
0.02
a minimum
R
value may be estimated. The total mass of metal,
Zn
69 200
1171
6
32
none
586
6
17.8
M
T
, is given by:
† Total content determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
‡ Regulatory limit specified by USEPA Method 1311 (USEPA, 1986).
M
T
5u
c
1r
b
c
* [3]
Note that the first effluent must be in equilibrium with the
(XRF), TCLP extraction, and 0.5
M
Ca(NO
3
)
2
extrac-
initial total mass,
M
T0
. Thus, setting
M
T
5
M
T0
and substituting
tion are reported in Table 1. Total Cd, Pb, and Zn in
back into Eq. [1], [2], and [3] yields:
the soil were well above background soil concentrations
R
$
M
T0
/PQL
u
[4]
(Holmgren et al., 1993). The TCLP-extractable Cd and
Pb exceeded regulatory levels, indicating the soil quali-
Distribution coefficients (
K
d
) were determined from the
fitted and estimated minimum
R
values using Eq. [5]:
fies as a hazardous material and requires remediation
and disposal at a hazardous waste facility. The high
K
d
5
(
R
2
1)
u
/
r
b
[5]
amounts of Cb,
Pb, and Zn extracted
with 0.5
M
r
b
is the soil dry bulk density and
u
where
is the volumetric
Ca(NO
3
)
2
indicate that a large portion of the total heavy
water content.
metals in the soil is relatively soluble, potentially bio-
Following each metal elution experiment, 50 mg Br L
2
1
available, and mobile (Basta and Gradwohl, 2000). Total
tracer solution was introduced as a conservative tracer to
elemental contents, determined by XRF, for each ele-
define flow parameters and investigate the possibility of trans-
ment in g kg
2
1
(in parentheses) were: Si (193), Al (38),
port-related non-equilibrium. The tracer solution was intro-
Ca (24), Mg (2.5), K (6.1), Fe (47), Mn (1.9), Ti (3.2),
duced as a continuous flow until complete breakthrough was
P (0.39), and Cr (0.27). As indicated by the Si to Fe
obtained. Collected effluent fractions were analyzed for Br
2
ratio, the collected material exhibits chemical properties
by ion chromatography. Bromide tracer breakthrough curves
were also plotted and fitted using the model COLUMN 1.4
of a soil material and not an iron-based smelting waste.
to determine
R
and
K
d
.
Soluble anions determined from saturated paste extract
Preliminary studies showed that metals within the column
in mg L
2
1
(in parentheses) were: Cl (26.6), SO
4
(1560),
reached steady state after 24 h of pre-equilibration. Eighmy
and NO
3
(21.7). Soil electrical conductivity (EC) was
et al. (1997) also indicated that 24 h was sufficient for pseudo-
2.15 dS m
2
1
.
equilibrium and solid phase precipitation of metal phosphate
compounds to occur with additions of soluble phosphate to
Contaminant Transport
combustion residues. We selected a pre-equilibration period
of 48 h to ensure the first solution fraction eluted was an
Typically, weak electrolytes (0.01 to 0.001
M
Ca) are
accurate representation of the soil solution in an equilibrated
included
in
the
eluting
solution
to
maintain
ionic
soil system.
strength and aggregate stability of the soil system (Selim
Chemical analyses obtained from the first fraction samples
and Amacher, 1996). To accurately determine solution
were input into the chemical equilibrium speciation model
chemical speciation and probable mineral phases con-
MINTEQA2 (Allison et al., 1991) to predict species activity
trolling metal solubility, background electrolytes were
in solution. To investigate the potential formation of metal
excluded from eluting solutions used in the metal trans-
phosphate precipitates or minerals formed from the immobili-
port experiments. Soluble Ca concentrations in eluent
zation treatments, activity-ratio diagrams were constructed
fractions were in excess of 0.005
M
Ca (200 mg Ca L
2
1
)
(Sposito, 1994). Graphic methods such as activity-ratio dia-
through 60 pore volumes elution for all experiments,
grams can be used to describe and qualitatively interpret min-
eral solubility data to determine potential minerals controlling
indicating a well-buffered system from the prior lime-
metal solubility and their relative solubility with respect to
stone amendments to the soil. The Ca concentrations
other minerals. Dissolution equilibria of probable minerals
measured in solution were in excess of 0.005
M
Ca over
controlling metal solubility and transport in contaminated soils
the duration of all experiments. Therefore, the exclusion
were used to construct the diagrams. Chemical speciation data
of additional background electrolytes probably had no
obtained from the first fraction of each column effluent were
adverse effect on soil structure or aggregate stability.
plotted on the diagrams to identify minerals potentially con-
Solution pH values varied only
6
0.2 units ranging from
trolling heavy metal solubility.
6.8 to 7.2 throughout the duration of all column elu-
tion experiments.
Metal elution curves show that DAP amendments
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
decreased the metal eluted from the contaminated soil.
Soil Properties and Contaminants
Increasing
P
additions
incrementally
decreased
the
The contaminated soil was a sandy loam with 67%
amounts of Cd eluted from the contaminated soil (Fig.
sand, 29% silt, and 4% clay and with a soil pH of 6.8.
1A). Similarly, P additions decreased the amounts of
Selected soil properties and levels of metal contamina-
Pb eluted; however, treatments of 920 and 2300 mg P
kg
2
1
displayed similar Pb elution curves (Fig. 1B). Like-
tion in the soil as determined by X-ray fluorescence
 496
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 30, MARCH–APRIL 2001
Zn elution was shown by increasing applied P beyond
460 mg kg
2
1
. Increasing the DAP application from 920
to 2300 mg P kg
2
1
further reduced Cd and Pb eluted
but also increased As eluted from 0.003 to 0.13 mg kg
2
1
over 60 pore volumes. Phosphate additions increased As
elution, apparently due to phosphate–arsenate ligand
exchange. Peryea (1991) and Peryea and Kammereck
(1997) reported similar phosphate-induced release and
transport of As when P was added to orchard soils
spiked or contaminated with lead arsenate. Only slight
increases in total As eluted with P added were observed
in treatments
2300 mg P kg
2
1
. Furthermore, the 2300
mgPkg
2
1
application showed little improvement for
further reducing Zn elution over the 460 mg P kg
2
1
treatment.
Additions of excessive amounts of P to a contami-
nated soil may increase the risk of leaching and eutro-
phication to sensitive surface water bodies. Phosphorus
elution curves for all column experiments are shown in
Fig. 1D. As P application increased, the mass of P eluted
from the treated soil columns increased. Total phospho-
rus eluted from the DAP treatments through 60 pore
volumes was 0.32, 0.78, and 2.31 mg for the 460, 920,
and 2300 mg P kg
2
1
treatments, respectively (Table 2).
These summations of total P eluted correspond to
,
1%
of the total P added to each of the repacked soil columns.
Furthermore, the low percentages of total P eluted indi-
cate an adequate pre-equilibration period for sorption
and/or precipitation to occur.
Model-fitted elution curves for Cd, Pb, and Zn are
shown as solid lines in Fig. 1A–C. Experiment parame-
ters (bulk density, Darcy flux, and water content), calcu-
lated
R
, and
K
d
are given in Table 3. Soil bulk densities
(
,
r
b
) in the repacked columns ranged between 1.26 and
1.31 g cm
2
3
and Darcy flux between 1.70 to 2.43 cm h
2
1
.
Fitted metal elution curves for most treatments had
r
2
.
0.9 and were well described by the COLUMN model.
Elution of Pb from the 920 and 2300 mg P kg
2
1
treat-
ments resulted in only a few fractions with concentra-
tions above detection limits; therefore, these datasets
were not fitted with the model.
Model-fitted metal elution curves showed increasing
R
with increasing P application (Table 3). Retardation
factors increased by approximately twofold for Cd and
sixfold for Zn between the untreated soil and the 2300
mg P kg
2
1
treatments. Lead retardation factors in-
Fig. 1. Elution curves for Cd, Pb, Zn, and P for untreated and diam-
creased approximately 3.5-fold with the addition of 460
monium phosphate (DAP)-amended soils. Symbols represent ob-
mg P kg
2
1
. These increases in
R
with added DAP indi-
served elution data and lines represent model-fitted elution curves.
cate that metal breakthrough is slowed by increasing P
applications.
Calculated
distribution
coefficients
in-
wise, P addition reduced the amount of Zn eluted with
creased from 4.0 to 9.0 L kg
2
1
for Cd, from 2.9 to 10.8 L
only slight differences observed for the Zn elution
kg
2
1
for Pb, and from 2.5 to 17.1 L kg
2
1
for Zn (Table 3).
curves from the P-amended soils (Fig. 1C). Numerical
Lead elution from the 920 and 2300 mg P kg
2
1
treat-
integration (through 60 pore volumes) of eluted Cd, Pb,
ments resulted in only a few measured samples above
and Zn in Fig. 1A–C indicated that increasing DAP
the PQL. For these Pb elution curves the calculated
application decreased the total amount of metal trans-
minimum
R
does not follow the trend of increasing
ported. The mixture of DAP with the contaminated soil
at 460 mg P kg
2
1
decreased the Cd and Pb transported
retardation values (and increasing
K
d
) with increased
applied P (Table 3). This could be due to the variability
by roughly half and also produced a 19-fold decrease in
the amount of Zn transported (Table 2). A concomitant
of Pb concentrations measured (above the PQL) in the
decrease in Cd and Pb transported was realized with
the 920 mg P kg
2
1
samples that were used to make the estimations for
application, but little difference in
minimum Pb retardation.
497
McGOWEN ET AL.: USE OF DIAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE IN CONTAMINATED SOIL
Table 2. Cumulative mass† of As, Cd, Pb, Zn, and P collected from miscible displacement experiments and expressed as percent of
metal eluted from the untreated column (in parentheses) through 60 pore volumes of elution.
P Treatment
As
Cd
Pb
Zn
P
mgPkg
2
1
mg kg
2
1
m
gkg
2
1
mg kg
2
1
mg column
2
1
,
0
0.001
14.9 (100)
460 (100)
108 (100)
ND
460
0.003
7.1 (47.7)
237 (51.4)
5.7 (5.3)
0.32
920
0.002
4.1 (27.5)
9.5 (2.1)
6.0 (5.6)
0.78
2300
0.13
0.8 (5.4)
5.2 (1.1)
4.5 (4.2)
2.31
† As, Cd, Pb, and Zn are expressed on a kg soil basis; P expressed on mass basis (mg column
2
1
).
Table 3. Summary of transport parameters, best-fit retardation (
R
), and calculated distribution coefficients (
K
d
) for Cd, Pb, and Zn
elution from untreated and diammonium phosphate (DAP)-amended soils.
Cd
Pb
Zn
P treatment
Length
Flux
r
u
R
r
2
R
K
d
r
2
R
K
d
r
2
b
d
mgPkg
2
1
cm
cm h
2
1
gcm
2
3
%
L kg
2
1
0
7.5
1.70
1.31
0.38
14.8
4.0
0.995
10.9
2.9
0.992
9.5
2.5
0.993
460
7.5
2.10
1.29
0.39
16.7
4.7
0.987
37.7
10.8
0.970
15.9
4.5
0.984
920
7.5
2.41
1.29
0.37
18.1
4.9
0.993
58.2†
16.4
–
20.9
5.7
0.992
2300
7.5
2.43
1.29
0.38
31.4
9.0
0.923
30.6†
8.74
–
58.8
17.1
0.903
† Estimated from equation based on practical quantitative limit (PQL) of instrument method.
With the exception of the two estimated values for
resentative of a conservative tracer in porous media and
conformed to the assumption of local equilibrium, with
Pb, model-fit
R
and calculated
K
d
values increased with
increasing P treatment. In general, increased retardation
r
2
values above 0.99 for all fits (Fig. 2). These results
indicate that transport-related non-equilibrium was not
(
R
) values indicate slowed metal movement through
the soil column (Fetter, 1993). This condition concurs
with the diminished total metal transported through the
a factor in any of the experiments.
Probable Mineral Solid Phases
column with increasing P application. By definition,
K
d
and Metal Solubility
values relate the ratio of mass of solute sorbed on soil
to the concentration of solute in solution at equilibrium
Chemical immobilization treatments may decrease
with the mass of solute sorbed on soil. Using this defini-
metal solubility through the formation of metal–phos-
tion,
increasing
K
d
values
indicate
increased
solute
phate precipitates and increase long-term stability by
sorbed onto soil and less solute in solution and an overall
forming less soluble and more stable metal–phosphate
decrease in mobile metal available for transport.
minerals (Mench et al., 1998). Long-term geochemical
Bromide breakthrough curves for all columns were
stability of the solid phases formed by chemical immobi-
sigmoid shaped and showed no apparent tailing, indicat-
lization should be evaluated to determine the potential
ing homogenous packing and well-satisfied boundary
long-term effectiveness of such treatments. Increased
K
d
values (Table 3) are probably due to the formation
conditions. Breakthrough curves showed behavior rep-
Fig. 2. Observed (symbol) and fitted (line) bromide breakthrough curves.
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