US ARMY course - Mountaineering Techniques Advanced , WAR-WOJNA, US ARMY

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MOUNTAINEERING TECHNIQUES (ADVANCED)
BILL LYDE GS9/E. LIVINGSTON GS12
SUBCOURSE NO. IN0494
UNITED STATES ARMY INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA 31905-5593
5 Credit Hours
GENERAL
The purpose of this subcourse is to teach the techniques you must know in order to cope
with mountainous terrain. The advanced mountaineering apply to all operations on
mountainous terrain. If you are skilled in military mountaineering, you can perform
essential missions in difficult terrain. These skills are expanded by training with
experienced climbers as a team, and by learning how to modify new techniques to suit
your own style. As experience is gained, new techniques are added to your
mountaineering knowledge as long as safety and caution are retained.
TASK:
Identify advanced mountaineering techniques on glaciers, snow-covered
mountains, and alpine paths.
CONDITIONS:
Given the subcourse material, a training scenario and extracts, as
applicable, the student will complete the examination at the end of this
subcourse.
STANDARDS:
The student will successfully answer 70 percent of the questions on a
multiple-choice based examination for subcourse IN0494.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON 1: MOUNTAINEERING TECHNIQUES ON GLACIERS AND SNOW-
COVERED MOUNTAINS
Part A: CLASSIFICATION OF SNOW
Part B: AVALANCHES
Part C: SAFETY RULES
Part D: AVALANCHE RESCUE
PART E: MOVEMENT ON SNOW AND ICE
Practice Exercise
LESSON 2: MOUNTAINEERING TECHNIQUES ON ALPINE PATHS
Part A: ALPINE PATHS AND HANDLINES
Part B: STEPS AND LADDERS
Part C: WALKWAYS
Practice Exercise
ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUCTIONS
SUBCOURSE CONTENT
This subcourse contains two lessons. Lesson 1 covers advanced mountaineering
techniques on glaciers and snow-covered mountains. Lesson 2 covers advanced
mountaineering techniques on alpine paths.
Supplementary Requirements
Prerequisites. There is one prerequisite for this subcourse which must be completed
before you begin studying the material contained within this subcourse.
IN 0486, Mountaineering Techniques (BASIC)
Supervisory Assistance. There are no supervisory requirements for completion of this
subcourse.
References. No supplementary references are needed for this subcourse.
GRADING AND CERTIFICATION INSTRUCTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT
This subcourse has a multiple-choice test covering all lessons. You must score a
minimum of 70 percent on this test to meet the objective of the subcourse. Answer all
questions on the enclosed ACCP examination response sheet. After completing the
examination, place the answer sheet in the self-addressed envelope provided and mail it
to the Institute for Professional Development (IPD) for scoring. IPD will send you a copy
of your score.
Five credit hours will be awarded for the successful completion of this subcourse.
This subcourse reflects the doctrine which was current at the time it was prepared. In
your own work situation, always refer to the latest publication.
Whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included, unless
otherwise stated.
INTRODUCTION
Mountains exist in almost every country in the world. Almost every war has included
some type of mountain operations. This pattern will not change; therefore, soldiers will
fight in mountainous terrain in future conflicts.
Mountain operations have not changed, but the equipment and transportation available
today have changed. The helicopter allows access to terrain that was once unreachable or
could be reached only by slow methodical climbing.
If bad weather exists, commanders must still use mountain climbing techniques to reach
certain objectives. Soldiers and leaders must know how to cope with mountainous terrain.
These techniques must be applied in a safe and cautious manner.
To be proficient, each soldier must work together as a team in building on
mountaineering techniques today, tomorrow, and in the future.
LESSON ONE
MOUNTAINEERING TECHNIQUES ON GLACIERS
AND
SNOW-COVERED MOUNTAINS
OVERVIEW
TASK DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson, you will learn to identify mountaineering techniques on glaciers and snow-
covered mountains.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
:
 TASKS: Understand mountaineering techniques on glaciers and snow-covered
mountains.
CONDITIONS: Given the subcourse material for this lesson, a training scenario, and
extracts as applicable, the student will complete the practical exercise to
demonstrate an understanding of mountaineering techniques on glaciers
and snow-covered mountains.
STANDARDS: The student will demonstrate his comprehension and knowledge of the
task by displaying an understanding of mountaineering techniques on
glaciers and snow-covered mountains.
REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following
publication:
TC 90-6-1
INTRODUCTION
During the winter, mountaineering operations must be customized with special
preparation, training, and equipment to negotiate difficult and dangerous snow-covered
ground. It is imperative that you become self-sufficient and trained in these techniques to
avoid mission failure as well as loss of lives.
PART A - CLASSIFICATION OF SNOW
1. General
During the winter, it is imperative that you know which forms of snow are beneficial, and
which are hazards to you as a climber. To clarify the danger inherent in snow and ice, it is
necessary to outline the forms that snow assumes in its transition to glacier ice.
There are two types of snow: powder snow (loose snow) and compact snow (slab).
·
Powder snow (loose snow). This snow is in its early stages and is further
classified as new snow, or settling/settled snow.
New snow maintains individuality of flakes (crystals) or grains, which are free to
move independently of each other immediately following its fall. If new snow is
dry, it is feathery; if damp, it quickly consolidates into settling or settled snow.
Snow is dry at subfreezing temperatures and wet at higher temperatures, where it
contains water held among the ice grains.
Dry snow consists of two forms: the round and the faceted forms.
·
The round form consists of well-rounded grains that are joined to give the
snow slab cohesive strength. This form usually occurs when the snow
cover is deep and temperatures are moderate.
·
The faceted form consists of angular crystals that are poorly bonded.
These usually occur near the bottom of snow layers that are not too deep;
thus, they are called depth hoar. They usually develop in extremely cold
weather.
When melting occurs, the dry forms disappear and other forms take their place.
The snow forms into clusters of grains where the water is free to drain. Slush
forms where the drainage is diverted. This form is not cohesive.
·
Compact snow (slab). This is snow that has passed beyond the stage of settled
snow, where the individual crystals or grains are attached to bonded to give the
snow some cohesiveness.
·
Glacial firn or neve is densely packed snow that has survived at least one summer
melt season. Glacier ice forms from the continuing compaction of firn until it is
impermeable.
2. Snow Formations.
The forms of snow change during their transition from dry new snow to glacier ice.
Temperature, humidity, and wind are important modifying factors in this transition.
Sun crust, wind crust or wind loose-packed snow, and wind slab are phenomena that
should be important to you, the mountain soldier.
·
Sun Crust. This is any snow that has had the top superficial layer melted by heat
and subsequently refrozen often in repeated cycles. A layer of snow that is sun-
crusted and weathered throughout its thickness becomes firn snow (neve). Sun
crust commonly overlies loose powder snow.
·
Wind Crust or Wind Loose-packed Snow. This is usually found on windward
slopes and is anchored firmly to the underlying snow. Wind crust is usually safe.
Freezing rain crust is also safe but once buried under new snow may form sliding
layers for avalanches. Surface hoar crystals grow onto the surface on clear, cold
nights. The feathery crystals also form weak layers once they are buried by
subsequent snowfalls. Any type of crust, once buried under new snow is a
potential slide base for avalanches.
·
Wind Slab. This is formed from snow transported and deposited by winds. While
the slabs are well compacted, they are loosely anchored to the underlying surface
and are poorly bonded to the substratum. Having been transported by wind, the
component grains are rounded and do not reflect the light. For this reason, the
surface of a wind slab has a dull, chalky appearance. Wind slabs are dangerous
because they often form the platform for subsequent avalanches.
PART B - AVALANCHES
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